PAINTINGS
AJANTA
CAVE PAINTINGS
the many-splendoured delights of Ajanta compiled by Prof.Subramanian Swaminathan
e-mail: sswami99@gmail.com
Glossary
While writing the text, I have avoided, as far as possible, the use
of technical terms which, for lay persons, generally impede the flow of
reading. In spite of this, I was constrained to employ jargon sometimes.
One reason for this was that an explanation or the meaning of the term
in simple language might become long-winded and inelegant. But, in most
of such situations I have attempted to indicate the meaning in various
ways: giving it within brackets, adding a separate sentence or breaking
the sentence into two or more, etc. But there is no escape from jargon!
To acquire a vocabulary of technical terms would be rewarding, for they
mean much more than the dictionary signifies. Thus in order to help
people like myself, I have added a glossary for easy reference.
The terms included in this glossary are those that have been used
in the text. I have also added a few which are not in the text. These
are words connected with the Buddhist faith and places of religious
importance. Lastly I have also added those architectural terms which
baffle people like me. There is a reason for including these, though I
have mostly avoided them in my text. One is bound to come across with
them terms while interested in this and similar topics. I am aware of
the frustration of having to repeatedly refer to a dictionary. I do not
claim to have made the glossary comprehensive, but just adequate.
- Swaminathan
abacus: A level tablet on the capital of a column (or, simply. pillar),
supporting an entablature; (entablature: that which surmounts the column
and rests upon the capital).
airika (softening-hardlines): One of the three methods of vartana
(shading), to produce depth and relief. In this technique an illusion of
depth is achieved by executing tonal variation and avoiding hardlines.
alto-relievo: High relief, figures projected by at least half their
thickness from the background on which they are sculpted; (bas-relief:
sculpture in which the figures do not stand far out from the base on
which they are formed).
amalaka: Design based on the amla (Indian gooseberry) fruit, generally a spheroid slab, with ribs around the edge.
ancient trade routes: The main trade route connected north India,
through Ujjain, Mahishmati, with Paithan (ancient Prathishthana,
the capital of the early Saata-vaahana-s), with ports on the
south-eastern coast, through Ter (ancient Tagara), Amaravati, etc. The
other trade route was connecting Broach (ancient Bharukachchha) and
Pratishthana..
anda: Spherical shaped crown of a stoopa built in a chaitya; over this
is mounted a harmika, a triple-umbrella (chhatraa-vali) and finally, a
poorna-ghata. (anda, meaning egg, often refers to the world as having
sprung from the primordial egg of Brahma.).
animnonnata (flat-style): One of the techniques in painting to produce
an illusion of the third dimension: a simple shading technique using
dark colours for the subjects in the foreground against a background of
lighter shades, or vice versa, and different from the more sophisticated
technique called nimnonnata.
apsara /apsaras: Celestial damsel, regarded as wives of gaandharva-s.
apse: A semi-circular recess; chaitya-s, like Cave 10 of Ajanta is
apsidal at the rear, and a stoopa is found at the centre of the apse.
archaic: In art, refers to the initial phase in the development of an
art form. In the context of Ajanta, one may take that the earliest style
may be more appropriately pre-Classical, rather than, archaic.
architrave: The lowest division of the entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the column).
ardha-mandapa: Literally ‘half-hall’. [See under ‘mandapa’].
arhat: Divinity of the highest rank in Buddhist hierarchy.
ashlar Masonry: masonry using squared stones.
astylar: Without pillars (columns).
attha-mahaa-thaanaani: The eight places considered the most sacred in
the Buddhist faith. These places derive their holiness because of their
intimate connection with major events in the life of the Buddha. Of
these four are related to important events in the life of the Buddha.
These are Lumbini, where Siddhartha was born, Gaya, where He attained
Enlightenment; Sarnath, where he preached the First Sermon, and
Kushi-nagara, where he obtained nirvaana. The remaining four are the
locations where He is believed to have performed miracles. He displayed
His miraculous powers at Shraavasti by multiplying Himself a
thousand-fold to baffle His critics. He ascended the Heaven of
thirty-three gods and preached the Dharma to His Mother at Shaankashya.
He subjugated a mad elephant at Raaja-griha. And, finally, at Vaishaali a
number of monkeys offered Him honey.
baroque: A period where ornamentation predominates. Generally, this
phase follows the classical period and the period of Mannerism. In
Ajanta, it began in the mid-6th century AD.
bas-relief: Sculpture in which the figures do not stand far out from the
base on which they are formed; it may be low relief or high relief
depending on the depth of carving. (alto-relievo: high relief, figures
projected by at least half their thickness from the background on which
they are sculptured; A self-standing sculpture is called ‘sculpture in
the round’).
bindi: Also known as till. The custom of women decorating their forehead
with a tilak, also known as bindi, is a common sight to day. But, in
Ajanta portraiture we find women sporting the tilak only infrequently.
Janapada-Kalyaani, wife of Nanda is one of the women sporting tilak in
Ajanta.
binduja (dot-and-stipple-method): One of the three methods of vartana
(shading), to produce depth and relief; in this technique an illusion of
depth is achieved by painting dots with variations in the concentration
of dots to create the illusion of depth.
Bodh-gaya: This is the holiest of holy places in Buddhism and one of
‘the eight holy places’ (attha-mahaa-thaanaani). Here Siddhartha
received Enlightenment and became the Buddha. On the full-moon day of
the month of Vaishakha (May), after taking a bath in the river
Nairanjana or Nirayana (now called Lilajan) He sat under a peepal tree
with determination and finally saw the Truth. Emperor Ashoka, who
visited the place, called it Sambhodhi, but later it was referred to as
Bodhgaya. A massive spire of the Mahabodhi temple rises above a cluster
of stoopa-s and monasteries. Inside, a colossal gilded image of the
Buddha sits in repose. The 'Jewel Shrine of the Walk’ marks the
footprints of the Buddha. To the west stands the sacred Bodhi tree under
which He received Enlightenment; this is marked the Seat of
Enlightenment. On the south and west of the temple are carved railings,
which are among the most ancient relics in India. It is believed that
the Buddha bathed in the lotus pond situated south of the temple. The
ruins of many beautiful sculptures and richly decorated stoopa-s lie
strewn around in the vicinity. Uruvila, situated close to Gaya, is also
an important place. It is here Siddhartha practised rigid austerities,
but the Truth eluded him. The Buddha visited Uruvila again after
Enlightenment and performed many miracles.
Bodhi-sattva: In the Buddhist mythology ‘the would-be Buddha’. The
Bodhi-sattva took birth as a human or a celestial being, a small bird or
a mighty elephant. In each of these births, He outshone others by His
supreme intelligence, the nobility of His character, His spirit and
selfless service and His boundless compassion. Jaataka stories deal with
these lives. [see jaataka].
body postures: (See under ‘sthaana-s’).
bracket: a support inserted at an angle to hold up the roof or the beam above a column (pillar).
Buddhist holy places: (See under ‘attha-mahaa-thaanaani’).
capital: Head or top part of a column (pillar).
cave temples: It was Ashoka who initiated cutting living rocks into
architectural forms as places of worship. This gained momentum and in
about 1200 years the whole Indian landscape was dotted with large and
small rock-hewn monuments. Since these structures are not damaged by
weather, all such monuments survived. In the initial stages of
development of rock-cut monuments, they were simply petrified versions
of the contemporary brick-and-timber or the mud-and-thatch structures.
Such a construction cannot strictly be called architecture, and hence
this is identified as rock-architecture or architectural sculpture. The
earliest caves are those excavated by Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha
in the hills of Barabar (Jahanabad district in the state of Bihar)
Nagarjuni and Sitamarhi (near Gaya, in the state of Bihar). The Sudaama
cave and the Lomaas-rishi cave of Barabar hill are more advanced. Though
the beginning was made in Bihar, it was in the Deccan that the
rock-architecture reached its zenith. The chaitya-s and vihaara-s
excavated during 200 BC to 200 AD can be found in Bhaja and Bedsa (both
in the district of Pune in the state of Maharashtra), Kondane (Kolaba
district in the state of Maharashtra), Pitalkhora, Caves 8, 9, 10 and 12
of Ajanta and in a number of other places. Belonging to the same period
is a group of two vihaara-s and a chaitya at Guntappalli (Krishna
district of Andhra Pradesh), the caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri near
Bhubaneshwar, the capital city of the state of Orissa. Slightly later a
number of caves were excavated in the Junagadh hills in Gujarat, but
they were generally plain. The Bagh caves (Dhar district in the state of
Madhya Pradesh) are somewhat later than the Gujarat caves, and are
essentially large pillared halls, with rows of monk-cells scooped out in
the sidewalls. It was in the Deccan again that the later phase of cave
construction started, from 450 AD, of which the remaining caves of
Ajanta are the most important. The Buddhist caves at Ellora belong to
two periods. The earlier caves like caves 1, 2, 3 and 5 belong to 400
AD, and the remaining to 6th-7th centuries. Though Cave 6 of Ajanta is
two-storied, the multi-storied Ellora caves are remarkably original in
conception. The 7th century caves Anantha-sayana-gudi at Undavalli
(Guntur district in the state of Andhra Pradesh) belong to this style.
It was by about 5th century AD, the Hindus and the Jains adopted the
rock-cut mode of architecture for their temples. The earliest cave at
Udayagiri (Vidisha district in the state of Madhya Pradesh) was built by
Chandragupta II. In the South, a very large number of rock-cut temples
were constructed by the Chalukya-s of Vatapi (6-7th century), the
Rashtrakuta-s (7-9th century), the Pallava-s of Kanchi (6-9th century)
and the Pandya-s of Madurai (8-9th century).
ceiling paintings: The ceilings in Ajanta are painted with secular
motifs. The motifs were geometric designs, flower decorations, animals
and birds and humorous scenes.. In the decoration of the ceiling the
Ajanta artist was at his creative best.
chaaya-tapa: Literally ‘shade and shine; a technique that creates
a kind of soft light and shade effect which produces a soft glow on the
outline of the head. The famous painting of BODHI-SATTVA PADMA-PAANI in
Cave 1 is an example of use of this technique.
chaitya: The caves of Ajanta are divided into chaitya-s (temples) and
vihaara-s (monasteries). The chaitya bears some similarity to the early
Christian basilica, having an arched roof and a long vaulted nave
(central portion) with pillared aisles on either side, terminating in an
apse (semi-circle). In the apsidal end is placed the chaitya or stoopa,
which is in fact a sophisticated form of the grave mound of
pre-Buddhist times. A prominent arched window to provide light to the
interior usually surmounts the facade, in the form of a screen with a
small door. The shape of this arched window gradually evolved from a
simple semi-circular opening, as in the earliest Chaitya-cave 10, to the
elaborate sun-windows of the Chaitya-caves 9, 19 and 26 of a later
period. Inside Cave 10, traces of old wooden ceilings are still to be
found, which the stone architecture of a later period faithfully
imitated. Later during the Mahaayana phase it gave way to upright,
ornamented pillars in the Mahaayana group of caves. The stoopa-dome also
changed from a plain hemisphere to a cylindrical form with elaborate
carving and sculptures. The vihaara-s are rectangular halls with cells
for the monks on the inner sides, leading out to verandahs. The oldest
vihaara-s at Ajanta, Caves 8, 12, and 13, in that order, were the
monasteries attached to the earliest Hinaayana chaitya-s, Caves 9 and
10, which have a square central hall, without pillars, opening into
small living-rooms with stone beds. The vihaara-s of the Mahaayana group
consist of Caves 6, 7, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 26, which are said to
belong to the period between AD 450 and 550; whereas Caves 1, 2, 3, 4,
27 and 29 were perhaps hollowed out at a later period. By the middle of
the 5th century the plan of the vihaara included the function of the
chaitya by introducing imposing statues of the Buddha in place of the
stoopa-s. And in order to accommodate a more numerous laity an
antechamber and a shrine in the back-wall called the chaitya mandiram
were added. The magnificent Caves 1 and 2 are both assigned to the 6th
century AD, and represent Ajanta's resurgence of sophisticated painting
in the face of the Hindu revival. Caves 1, 2, 4, 16, 19 and 26
contain some of best sculptures of Ajanta.
Chalukya dynasty: In the 6th century the Vaakaataka-s succumbed to the
mighty power of the Chalukya-s. It is probable that the decorations at
Cave 1 at Ajanta were done during the reign of Pulakesin II, who died in
642 AD.
chhatra-vali: Ceremonial umbrella, normally three in number set on a haarmika and an anda crowning a stoopa.
classical period: A period of artistic maturity, which allows no
excesses and over-dramatisation. In Ajanta 4th-5th centuries AD is
considered the classical period. This follows archaic or pre-classical
phase and is followed by mannerism and baroque. Compositions like
Simhala Avadaana of Cave 17 belong to the classical style.
corbel: Projection from the face of the wall supporting a weight.
dance and painting: A relation between the two is a unique feature of
the Indian art tradition. For example, in Vishnu-dharmottara, a 11th
century AD treatise, is found a discourse in which Maarkhandeya
instructs King Vajra that without the knowledge of the science of
dancing, the rules of painting can scarcely be understood. In another
passage, the observation of nature and of the rules of dancing are
indicated as the ultimate resource for the painter.
dressed in nakedness: One intriguing factor of Ajanta composition is
that many of the Ajanta heroines are scantly dressed or they are painted
naked. Two of the examples of this feature are the scene QUEEN
CAPTIVATES MAHAA-JANAKA of Cave 1 and the painting of the DYING PRINCESS
of Cave 16.
dvaara-paala: Gatekeeper.
Ellora: Situated close to Ajanta, this place is extra-ordinary, for it
is the meeting ground of the three principal Indian religions. We find
here the Hindu, the Jain and the Buddhist caves. Of these the Buddhist
ones are the earliest, dating from the 4th century AD to the 9th
century. The most breathtaking monument here is the great monolith,
Kailasa-naatha temple, a Hindu temple. The Jain cave temples have a
quiet dignity of their own.
entablature: That which surmounts the column and rests upon the capital..
fore-shortening: [See under 'kshaya-vriddhi'].
fresco buono: A technique of wall painting where the application of
colours is to a layer of moist lime plaster. The European mural
paintings are of this type. Indian and all Asian murals were painted on
an almost dry wall, called fresco secco
fresco secco: A technique of mural painting where painting is done on a
dry wall. Indian and Asian wall paintings are of this type, whereas in
Europe fresco buono is followed where the painting is done on a moist
lime plaster.
frieze: A decorated band along the top of a room wall; horizontal band
used in sculpture and architecture, often filled with sculptured relievo
work in ribbon shape.
gaandharva: Celestial musician.
gana: Demi-god acting as attendant; dwarf follower of Lord Shiva.
garbha-griha: sanctum of a temple.
Gaya: [See under Bodhgaya].
jaataka: Buddhist mythological story of the previous lives of the
Master. There are 547 jaataka-s. In these stories ‘the would-be Buddha’,
in His careers as the Bodhi-sattva-s, outshone others by His supreme
intelligence, the nobility of His character, His spirit and selfless
service and His boundless compassion - no matter whether He was born as a
human or a celestial being, a small bird or a mighty elephant. Each
jaataka story exemplifies the efforts that the Bodhi-sattva made to
develop one of the ten virtues (paraamita). Thus, in Shad-danta Jaataka,
Bodhi-sattva is born as an elephant-king called Shad-danta to
demonstrate boundless generosity, in Vishvaantara Jaataka He is born as
Prince Vishvaantara to personify charity, and exhibits wisdom in
Vidhura-pandita Jaataka. Episodes from a number of jaataka-s are painted
on the walls of Ajanta. Some of the stories are similar to those found
in Hindu mythology: the Shyaama Jaataka (Cave 9) bears a close
resemblance to the story of Shravan Kumar in the Ramayana. Some of the
important ones painted in Ajanta caves are listed below, with the caves
in which these can be found given in brackets. Champeyya Jaataka, the
story of a serpent king (1); Hasti Jaataka, the story of the benevolent
elephant (16, 17); Mahaa-hamsa Jaataka, the story of the golden goose
(2, 17); Mahaa-kapi Jaataka, the story of the monkey king (17);
Mahaa-ummagga Jaataka, the story of the supernatural child, Maho-sadha
(1, 16); Mahisha Jaataka, the story of the benevolent buffalo and the
mischievous monkey (17); Maatri-poshaka Jaataka, the story of the
elephant who had blind parents (17); Matsya Jaataka, the story of the
fish which saved its kin from certain death (17); Mriga Jaataka, the
story of the golden deer (17); Nigro-dhamiga Jaataka, the story of the
sacred deer to save that of a doe (17); Sarabha Jaataka, the story of
the merciful stag (17); Shad-danta Jaataka, the story of the six-tusked
elephant (10, 17); Shankha-paala Jaataka, the story of the serpent (1);
Shibi Jaataka, the story of the pigeon (1); the story of the king who
donated his eyes (17); Shyaama Jaataka, the story of the devoted son
whose parents were blind(10, 17); Suta-soma Jaataka, the story of the
pious King of Indra-prastha trying to persuade Saudasa, the King of
Varanasi, to give up cannibalism (16, 17); Vidhura-pandita Jaataka, the
story of the wise minister (2); Vishvaantara Jaataka, the story of the
prince devoted to alms-giving (17).
jamb: The sidepiece or post of a door.
jataa-makuta: Matted hair
Kaama-sootra: A well-known work on Indian erotics. In a chapter on
painting is an enumeration of the ‘six limbs’ or essentials aspects of
painting. They are roopa-bheda (an appropriate representation of forms
or appearances), pramaana (appropriate structure and proportion, bhaava
(the suggestion of action and feeling, as well as laavanya (the infusion
of the quality of grace). The fifth canon enjoins sadrishya
(similitude), which may be taken to mean an appropriate resemblance to
natural objects rather than realistic imitation in a literal sense. The
last branch of painting mentions varnika-bhanga (the proper manner of
using the brush and colour).
Kapila-vastu: Though not one among the 'eight important places'
(attha-mahaa-thaanaani) in Buddhism, the place is important in the
history of Buddhism as Suddhodana, father of Gautama, the Buddha, was
the king of Kapila-vastu. This is identified with either Piprahwa, in
the district of Basti, in the sate of Uttar Pradesh or with Tilaurakot,
in the district of Taulihawa, in Nepal.
keyura: Bracelet worn on the upper-arm
kinnara: Mythical being half- human and half-bird
kshaya-vriddhi (loss and gain): Called foreshortening in English. In
this technique relief and plasticity are realised in terms of the
distances, showing farther objects smaller. The ceiling paintings
CHARGING BULL and the ELEPHANT of Cave 1 are examples of use of this
technique.
Kushi-nagara: One of the attha-mahaa-thaanaani. Now known as Kasia, in
the district of Gorakhpur, in the State of Utter Pradesh. Here the
Buddha took pari-nirvaana (Extinction) on the banks of the river
Hiranyavati and was cremated. To commemorate these two events, two
monasteries, Mahaa-pari-nirvaana Vihaara and Makuta-bandhana Vihaara
have been established here, as known from the seals recovered from here:
one showing the coffin of the Buddha between two shaala trees and the
other a funeral pyre. The most important monuments to day are the
Nirvaana Chaithya and Nirvana Shrine, both on the same platform. These
are dated to the early 5th century AD Gupta period, but have been
subsequently built over. The shrine houses a colossal Buddha lying in
state in sandstone. There are a number of stoopa-s, monasteries and
other buildings around. A little away from the main shrine is a mound,
locally known as Rambhar stoopa, believed to be the place where the
Buddha was cremated.
lapis lazuli: Literally a blue stone. A new colouring technique in the
use of lapis lazuli, a cool transparent blue, came into use in Ajanta
only in the 4th-5th centuries AD. It is employed during the Mahaayana
period with considerable effect in a number of paintings to produce a
sense of distance and depth, and thereby to enhance the feeling of
movement and animation.
Lumbini: The place of birth of the Buddha and one of the
atta-mahaa-thaanaani. This has been identified with Rummindei in the
district of Bhairawa in Nepal. Emperor Ashoka has visited the place and
erected a pillar on the spot. Antiquarian remains from the place
establish continuous religious activities till the 10th century.
mahaa-raaja-leela: A royal pose of sitting at ease, for example, the pose of the NAAGA COUPLE.
makara: A motif of a crocodile with a floriated tail.
mandapa: A pillared and canopied hall; ardha-mandapa (half-hall) is a
small hall connecting the shrine with mandapa, the larger hall, and
mukha-mandapa is the narrow hall connecting the ardha-mandapa or the
mandapa with the shrine.
mannerism: A period in the development of an art form, when some
stylistic changes are made from the classical ideals. End of 5th century
is considered to be the mannerist period in Ajanta. During this period
Ajanta produced some of the masterpieces like the BODHI-SATTAVA
PADMA-PAANI. The composition of Vidhura-pandita Jaataka is an example of
this style.
medallion: A bas-relief of a round.
mudra: Certain position of fingers or hand practised in devotion,
religious worship and dance; for example: abhaya mudra (pose of
assurance), varada mudra (boon-giving pose), bhoomi sparsha mudra
(earth-touching pose), dharma chakra pravartana mudra
(setting-the-Wheel-of-Law-into-motion pose or preaching pose), dhyaana
mudra (meditating pose) and anjali mudra (praying pose).
mukha mandapa: see mandapa.
multiple vision: A technique of composing scenes. In this a number of
scenes seen from different angles are painted in a single
composition. [See under perspective]
mural painting: Painting executed on a wall.
nave: The middle or main body of the basilica (a chaitya, in the Ajanta context) rising above the aisles
nimnonnata: A ‘high relief’ method of shading to bring out depth and
relief; also called vartana [see also animnonnata, and vartana].
nirvaana: Literally ‘Extinction’. Freedom from the cycle of births and deaths. [See also pari-nirvaana].
painting sequence: The Ajanta artist had followed certain sequence in
painting. A preliminary sketch in haematite (an iron ore) was drawn on
the surface while it was still slightly wet followed by an
under-painting in grey or white monochrome, like the medieval Italian
practice of terra verde. On this surface an outline in cinnabar red was
filled in with various colours, proceeding from under-painting as the
base to the appropriate colours of the subject. Finally, when dry, the
semi-fresco was finished off with a dark outline for final definition
and a burnishing process to give lustre to the surface.
palmate: Design based on palm-leaf .
pari-nirvaana: Literally ‘Final-extinction’; refers to the death of the Buddha.
patraja: ‘Shading-like-the-lines-of-leaf’, a vartana (shading) style.
The ceiling paintings Charging Bull and the Elephant of Cave 1 are
examples of use of this technique of shading.
perspective: One of the techniques used by the Indian painters from the
early times to produce an illusion of the third dimension. Ajanta
artists have used the normal (or true) perspective and also the reverse
perspective. A number of paintings at Ajanta can be cited as examples in
the use of these techniques. The GATE OF THE PALACE OF BRAHA-MADATTA of
Cave 2 is an example for normal or true perspective. The pavilion
behind the DANCING GIRL WITH MUSICIANS, a scene from Mahaa-janaka
Jaataka in Cave 1 is composed in the reverse perspective. The three
pavilions in which the LUSTRATION AND RENUNCIATION take place in Cave 1
are painted as if they are viewed from different angles, a technique
called multiple vision.
pigments used in Ajanta paintings: The artists of Ajanta used a wide
variety of pigments: red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kumkuma), yellow
ochre (haritala), indigo blue, lamp black (kajjala), chalk white (khadi
mati), terra verte (geru mati), green (jangal) and blue (lapis lazuli).
All these, with the exception of black, are mineral in origin. Lapis
lazuli, used for blue, alone was imported, as it was not found in the
neighbourhood. All other pigments were locally available as residual
products of the volcanic rock. Mixed colours were used on rare
occasions. Not all colours were used everywhere, nor with the same
consistency. The theme and the local atmosphere determined these.
Classical Indian painting does not aim at contrasts of a medley of
colours, but attempts at saturating the surface with highly charged and
dense colours.
pilaster: Pillar partly built into, partly projecting from a wall.
poorna-ghata: Symbolic religious vessel kept on the top of a stoopa touching the roof of a chaitya.
pralamba-paada: Posture of sitting with the legs hanging.
pramaana: An anga (limb) of painting and refers to ‘appropriate
structure and proportion’. Thus, standing images of the Buddha and major
divinities like the Bodhi-sattva-s were to be drawn in a ratio of nine
thaalam-s (a unit of length in which the length of the face taken as the
unit) for the total height of the image.
pre-classical: In art, this refers to that period which follows the
initial phase in the development of an art form, called the archaic
period. In the context of Ajanta this is the earliest phase.
preparation of wall: The rough surface of the naked stone walls was
first covered with a layer of potter's clay taken from the slimy beds of
pools and mixed with molasses, gum of a tree called Indian bdellium
(commiphora mukul, pronounced as "dellium") and rice husks, with perhaps
animal glue as a binding medium. On this a thin layer of lime plaster
was applied as priming. The chapters dealing with painting in
Vishnu-dharmottara, probably compiled during the 7th century AD, but
containing information from earlier times, give details of the
ingredients of clay plaster which show that it corresponded roughly with
the material used at Ajanta. The prescription according to this is as
follows: "A buffalo-skin was boiled in water until it became soft.
Sticks were then made of the paste and dried in the sunshine. It is
stated that if colour is mixed with this hard plaster, called
vajra-lepa, it makes it fast, and if white mud is mixed with it, it
serves as a perfect medium for coating the walls. Vajra-lepa coating was
usually done in three layers over a plaster which consisted of powdered
brick, burnt conches and sand, mixed with a liquid preparation of
molasses and drops of a decoction of mudga (Phaseolus munga). To this a
quantity of mashed ripe bananas or tree resins and the pulp of bilva
fruit (Aegle marmelos) was also added. After the mixture had dried it
was again ground down and mixed with molasses and water until it became
soft. The wall surface was washed down with water until it was
thoroughly clean, and then the plaster was applied with a spoon. This
was the two-fold process by which the wall was prepared for painting."
Raaja-griha: The capital of Magadha, Raaja-griha was one of the sixteen
great cities of India (Mahaajana-paada-s) during the time of the Buddha.
This place is now known as Rajghir, 90 km from Patna, the capital city
of the state of Bihar. The Magadha ruler Bimbi-saara was an ardent
disciple of the Holy One. But his son and the usurper of his kingdom
Ajaata-shatru was not well disposed towards Him initially, but became
His follower later. Raaja-griha is one of the eight holy places
(attha-mahaa-thaanaani). When the Buddha came here after His
Enlightenment, King Bimbi-saara gifted him a venu vana (bamboo-grove).
Here He stayed for some time. The inclusion of this place among the
eight important places is because He performed the miracle of
subjugating a mad elephant, called Nalagiri, let loose on Him by King
Ajaata-shatru at the instance of Deva-datta, a jealous cousin of the
Buddha. The incident forms the theme of a painting in Cave 17 and is
titled, ‘The Miracle at Raaja-griha’. The First Buddhist Council was
held in the Sapta-parani cave on the Vaibhava Hill after His
pari-nirvaana. One of the persons converted to his faith was
Shaari-putta, during His stay here.
relief and depth: A variety of techniques were available to create an
illusion of the third dimension. Perspective, foreshortening
(kshayaa-vriddhi), shading (vartana) and adding highlights (ujjotana)
are the most important ones. All these techniques are employed in
Ajanta.
rock-cut architecture: [See under 'cave temples']
rosette: Ornamental design based on the rose
Saata-vaahana-s: The rulers who ruled the area in which Ajanta lay. It
was during the rule of this dynasty that Caves 9 and 10 were excavated.
Though the kings belonged to the Hindu faith they were tolerant of other
faiths.
sadrishya: Refers to similitude and is an anga (limb) of painting.
Indian art tradition prescribes that the features or parts of the
anatomy of the divine being were to be presented in a metaphorical
rather than a naturalistic way. That is, the parts of the body were to
be represented in the shape of forms in the animal and vegetable worlds,
which had come to be regarded as more beautiful in an absolute sense
than the accidental and imperfect features to be found in human models.
Accordingly, the eyes of the great being are like lotus petals, his
arching brows like the curve of the Indian bow, and his face the perfect
ovoid (shape of the egg). The shoulders of the divinity are likened to
the massive domed head of the elephant, and his arms to its tapered
trunk. A further metaphor describes the torso as like the body of a
lion.
Samaraangana-sootra-dhara: a famous treatise on architecture written in
the 11th century by the Paramaara king, Bhoja. In this ‘Eight Limbs’ of
painting have been enumerated. These are: vartika (crayon),
bhoomi-bandhana (preparation of the surface), rekha-karma (outline
work), lakshana (the characteristic features of types of faces),
varna-karma (colouring) vartana-karma (plastic modelling or relief by
shading), lekha-karma (correction) and dvika-karma (final outline). This
as well as other treatises like Kaama-sootra and Vishnu-dharmottara
contain a collection of technical recipes as well as canons of
proportion and other injunctions for the fashioning of icons. For
example, the ‘limb’ called pramaana refers to ‘appropriate structure and
proportion’. Thus, standing images of the Buddha and major divinities
like the Bodhi-sattvas were to be drawn in a ratio of nine thaalam-s
(faces) for the total height of the image. [See also ‘sadrishya’]
Sarnath: Also known as Isi-pattana or Rishi-pattana. This is close to
Varanasi. It is in the Deer Park (mrigadava) of Sarnath that He
delivered the first discourse. The persons who attended this were the
‘five monks’ (pancha-vargeeya-s) His one time associates during His
initial stages in the quest for the Truth. This discourse is known as
the dharma chakra pravartana (setting-the-wheel-of-Law-into-motion).
Because of this the place is often referred to as Dharma-chakra Vihaara.
Here Emperor Ashoka erected the celebrated Ashoka pillar, only the
lower portion of which exists today at the site. The capital of the
pillar, the famous ‘four lions’ that has been adopted by India as its
national symbol is kept in the museum. Among a very large number of
stoopa-s, its Dhamekh stoopa is the most celebrated. Antiquities from
3rd century BC may be seen in the museum. This place is one among the
attha-mahaa-thaanaani (eight holy places).
shaala-bhanjika: Tree spirit, wood nymph, dryad.
shading: [See vartana]
Shasnkaashya: Known to-day as Sankissa or Sankasia, in the district of
Farukkhabad in the state of Utter Pradesh, this is the place from which
the Buddha ascended ‘the heaven of the thirty-three gods’ in order to
meet his mother and to deliver the message of the Law. According to
Buddhist legends, the Lord came down by a triple ladder, accompanied by
Shakra (Indra) and Brahma, a favourite theme in Buddhist art. This scene
is depicted in Cave 17 as BUDDHA PREACHES TO THE CONGREGATION. Emperor
Ashoka erected here an Ashokan column with an elephant capital.
Unfortunately, but for the extant remains of an earthen rampart and a
few scattered mounds, there is nothing to show for its proud history.
This place is one of the attha-mahaa-thaanaani (eight holy places).
Shraavasti: This was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Koshala. This
place is identified with the present day villages Saheth and Maheth,
the former in the district of Gonda and the later in the district of
Bahraich, both in the state of Utter Pradesh. The place is important
for, among other things, the Buddha performed a great miracle to
confound the sceptics, which included King Prasenajit of Koshala. He sat
on a lotus of a thousand petals and multiplied himself going upto the
highest heaven. This miracle is depicted in Ajanta in Caves 2 and 6. The
second reason for its importance is the donation of a splendid Jetavana
Vihaara by a merchant Anaatha-pindika. And, lastly, here the Master
converted a notorious robber, Anguli-maala. It is in the Jetavana
Vihaara that the Buddha spent the largest number of varsha-s, the
traditional retreat for four monsoon months, and delivered many of His
important sermons. The irregular enclosure wall is all that remains of
this vihaara. This encloses a number of stoopa-s, monasteries and
temples, most of which belong to a later date. Emperor Ashoka visited
the place.
spandrel (or spandril): corner space between a square with a circle drawn inside it.
sthaana-s: Body postures or body-poses. By the beginning of the later
period, namely, the 4th century, AD, systemising and adopting a whole
range of postures was complete. The postures or poses were identified,
and distinct terms to denote various degrees of bending and torsion of
the body were used to cover the entire range. It is possible that they
were greatly influenced by the contemporary dance traditions that by
that time had reached a very high level of sophistication. Thus, the
postures covering the range from the rijva-gata (frontal) to
paarshva-gata (strict profile) are, anriju (back view),
sachikrita-sharira (a bent position in profile), ardha-vilochana (the
face in full profile but the body in three-quarter profile),
paraa-vritta (head and one shoulder turned backwards), prishtha-gata
(back view with upper half of the body partly visible in profile),
pari-vritta (the body sharply turned back from the waist upwards) and
samanata (back view of a squatting position with bent body). Most of the
poses are found in Ajanta.
stoopa: Buddhist funeral mound, which gradually developed into a
dome-like structure, containing the ashes or relics of holy men; replica
of this was made in chaitya-s.
tilak: (See under ‘bindi’)
torana: An arched doorway
tribhanga: A body posture, where the whole figure is structured round
three main axes giving it an S-shaped rhythm. In Ajanta this is the most
popular pose particularly for depicting women in relaxed mood. The
BODHI-SATTVA PADMA-PAANI and the DANCING GIRL WITH MUSICIANS, both from
Cave 1, are a few examples. It is practised by dancers even today,
particularly in odissi, a classical dance form from the eastern part of
India. On the other hand abhanga is a standing pose with a slight
flexion, a pose one commonly found in sculpture.
triforium: A gallery, storey or arcade over an aisle.
ujjotana (adding-highlights): A technique for producing depth and
relief, an approach that is different from vartana. In this method
lighter and brighter pigments are added specifically to produce an optic
effect. This effect can be seen in the WOMAN HOLDING A LOTUS in Cave 1.
Vaakaataka-s: The Ajanta the cave-inscriptions attest to the liberality
of the ministers of the Vaakaataka rulers. The Vaakaataka-s were related
to the Imperial Gupta-s through matrimony.
Vaishali: Identified with present-day Basarh in the district of
Muzaffarpur in the state of Bihar, it is here that the Buddha was
offered a bowl of honey by monkeys. Because of this, this place is one
among the attha-mahaa-thaanaani (eight holy places). Again it is here
that the Buddha announced his ensuing pari-nirvaana. The Lichchhavi-s
erected a stoopa here on their share of the relics of the Master. This,
along with the stoopa built by Ashoka, is in ruin. The famous courtesan,
Amra-paali gifted Him a mango-grove here. Also, after about hundred
years of His pari-nirvaana, the Second Buddhist Council was held here,
which resulted in the split into the progressive Mahaa-saangika-s and
the traditionalist Theravaadin-s.
vajra-lepa: [See under ‘preparation of the wall’].
vartana: A family of shading techniques in painting to bring out depth
and relief. There were at least three vartana techniques adopted in
Ajanta and elsewhere in Indian paintings. They are patraja
(shading-like-the-lines-of-a-leaf), binduja (dot-and-stipple-method),
and airika (softening-hardlines). One can find all these methods used in
Ajanta. Ujjotana (adding-highlights) was another method of bringing out
depth and relief, by adding highlights. Vartana is also known as
nimnonnata (high-relief) as against animnonnata (flat-style).
vault: An arched roof or ceiling.
vidhyaadhara: Divine celestial.
vihaara-s: [See under chaitya-s and vihaara-s].
Vishnu-dharmottara: A 7th century treatise that details rules and canons for painting.
vrikshika: A wood nymph.
yaksha: Semi-divine being.
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